X-ray source, high-voltage generator, electron beam gun, rotary target assembly, rotary target, and rotary vacuum seal

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are a high-voltage generator for an x-ray source, an x-ray gun, an electron beam apparatus, a rotary vacuum seal, a target assembly for an x-ray source, a rotary x-ray emission target, and an x-ray source. These various aspects may separately and/or together enable the construction of an x-ray source which can operate at energies of up to 500 kV and beyond, which is suitable for use in commercial and research x-ray applications such as computerised tomography. In particular, the high-voltage generator includes a shield electrode electrically connected intermediate of a first voltage multiplier and a second voltage multiplier. The electron beam apparatus includes control photodetectors and photo emitters having a transparent conductive shield arranged therebetween. The rotary vacuum seal includes a pumpable chamber at a position intermediate between high-pressure and low-pressure ends of a bore for a rotating shaft. The rotary target assembly is configured such that when a torque between a bearing housing and a vacuum housing exceeds a predetermined torque, the bearing housing rotates relative to the vacuum housing. The rotary x-ray emission target has a plurality of target plates supported on a hub, the plates being arranged on the hub to provide an annular target region about an axis rotation of the hub. The x-ray gun is provided with a shield electrode maintained at a potential difference relative to the x-ray target different to the electron beam emission cathode.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to an x-ray source, and more particularlyto a high-voltage generator, an electron beam gun, a rotary targetassembly, a rotary target, and a rotary vacuum seal for the same.

BACKGROUND

X-ray imaging is a valuable tool for research, industrial applications,and medical applications. By irradiating a target object with x-rayradiation, and by detecting the x-rays transmitted through the object,an image of the internal structure of the object can be obtained.

Such an image allows the identification of those portions of the objectwhich relatively more attenuate the passage of x-rays, and those whichrelatively less attenuate the passage the x-rays. In general, densermaterials, and those comprising a high proportion of high-atomic-numberatoms or ions, will tend to impede the passage of x-rays to a relativelygreater degree. Furthermore, the longer the total path length travelledby the x-rays in the target object, the greater the degree ofattenuation. Therefore, in addition to providing structural information,x-ray imaging can provide information about the composition of theobject.

Additionally, by rotating the target object relative to thesource-detector system, or vice-versa, acquiring a sequence of x-rayimages at different angles about the object, and applying computerreconstruction techniques, a 3D volume map of the object can bedetermined. Such a map allows reconstruction of those volumetricportions of the object which attenuate x-rays to a greater or lesserextent, and thus allows information about the internal structure andcomposition of an object to be determined in 3D. Such 3D reconstructionis termed computerised tomography, or CT imaging.

Such x-ray imaging techniques are of particular importance innon-destructive testing of industrial products and research specimens.For example, the imaging of turbine blades allows casting defects to bedetermined, while the imaging of archaeological artefacts allows thestructure and composition of an artefact to be determined, even when theobject is corroded or encased in sedimentary deposits. For example, suchtechniques have been invaluable in the determination of the internalstructure of the ancient Corinthian analogue computer known as theAntikythera mechanism, even through extensive mineral deposits.

However, the property that enables x-rays to be of advantage inanalysing the internal structure of an object, namely their partialattenuation by dense matter, also presents a technical limitation as totheir utility. More particularly, if the object is dimensionally largeor contains a large amount of radiodense or radiopaque material, beingmaterial which presents a relatively high attenuation per unit pathlength of x-ray radiation, the x-ray beams having passed through theobject may be attenuated to such a degree that the contrast orsignal-to-noise in the recorded image is poor, and consequently theinternal structure or composition cannot be reliably determined.

Where attenuation is only moderate, increasing the total x-ray fluxthrough the object can yield improvements in signal-to-noise andcontrast at the detector. However, where the object is so large or soradiodense that a high proportion of the x-rays incident on the objectare unable to fully transit the object, but are rather absorbed withinthe object, a different solution is needed.

The distance an x-ray photon will characteristically penetrate beforeabsorption, the “penetration depth” increases with x-ray photon energy.Therefore, the generation of x-ray sources of high x-ray photon energy,especially to 300 keV or greater, enables the useful x-ray imaging oflarger and denser objects. However, commercially practical x-ray sourcesof suitably high energy have not been produced.

Accordingly, there is a need in the art for an x-ray source which canoperate at energies of up to 500 keV, and beyond, and which is suitablefor use in commercial and research x-ray applications such ascomputerised tomography (CT).

SUMMARY

According to a first aspect, there is provided a high-voltage generatorfor an x-ray source, the generator comprising: an output electrode; afirst voltage multiplier; a second voltage multiplier; and a shieldelectrode disposed to at least partially surround the output electrode;wherein: an output of the second voltage multiplier is electricallyconnected to the output electrode; an output of the first multiplier iselectrically connected to an input of the second voltage multiplier; andthe shield electrode is electrically connected to the input of thesecond voltage multiplier.

In one embodiment, the shield electrode substantially encloses theoutput electrode.

In one embodiment, the shield electrode circumferentially encloses theoutput electrode.

In one embodiment, the shield electrode has an emission aperture toallow emission of electrons from an electron emission source mounted atthe output electrode.

In one embodiment, the generator further comprises an elongateinsulating bushing having first and second ends, wherein: the first andsecond voltage multipliers are disposed within the bushing; the outputelectrode is provided at the second end of the bushing; and the shieldelectrode extends from a region of the bushing intermediate between thefirst and second ends of the bushing.

In one embodiment, the generator further comprises: a third voltagemultiplier; and a secondary shield electrode disposed to at leastpartially surround the shield electrode wherein: an output of the thirdvoltage multiplier is electrically connected to an input of the firstvoltage multiplier; and the secondary shield electrode is electricallyconnected to the input of the first voltage multiplier.

In one embodiment, the generator is arranged to generate a DC potentialdifference of at least 500 kV, preferably at least 750 kV, between ainput to the generator and the output electrode.

In one embodiment, each of the first and second, and optionally thethird, voltage multipliers are arranged to generate at least 150 kV,preferably 200 kV, most preferably 300 kV between respective inputs andoutputs.

In one embodiment, wherein each of the first and second, and optionallythe third, voltage multipliers is a Cockroft-Walton voltage multiplier.

In one embodiment, the generator further comprises one or more surgeresistors provided between the output of the first voltage multiplierand the input of the second voltage multiplier, and optionally one ormore further surge resistors are provided between the output of thethird voltage multiplier and the input of the first voltage multiplier.

In one embodiment, the generator further comprises one or more surgeresistors provided between the output of the second voltage multiplierand the output electrode.

According to a second aspect, there is provided an electron beamgenerator comprising: a high-voltage generator being an embodiment ofthe first aspect; an electron emission source mounted at the outputelectrode.

In one embodiment, the electron emission source is a heated filament.

In one embodiment, the electron beam generator further comprises avacuum enclosure disposed to enclose the output electrode, and theshield electrode.

According to a third aspect, there is provided an x-ray gun comprising:an electron beam generator being an embodiment of the second aspect; andan x-ray emission target positioned for irradiation by the electronbeam.

According to a fourth aspect, there is provided an electron beamapparatus comprising: a vacuum enclosure; and an electron beamgenerator, mounted in the vacuum enclosure, the electron beam generatorcomprising a high-voltage electrode and an electron emission sourcemounted at the high-voltage electrode to produce an electron beam,wherein: the electron beam generator further comprises a control modulemounted within the electron beam generator; the electron beam apparatusfurther comprises a remote module mounted relative to the wall of thevacuum enclosure; the control module comprises one of a photodetectorand a photoemitter; the remote module comprises the other of thephotodetector and the photoemitter; the photodetector is positioned toreceive light emitted by the photoemitter; the electron beam apparatusfurther comprises a transparent conductive shield arranged in theoptical path between the photodetector and the photoemitter to cover oneof the photodetector and the photoemitter.

In one embodiment, the transparent shield is arranged at andelectrically connected to the high-voltage electrode, and the controlmodule is mounted within the high-voltage electrode.

In one embodiment, the transparent shield is arranged at andelectrically connected to a wall of the vacuum enclosure.

In one embodiment, a conductive mirror is positioned in an optical pathbetween the transparent shield and the other of the photodetector andthe photoemitter that is not covered by the transparent conductiveshield.

In one embodiment, the conductive mirror is positioned at or within andelectrically connected to the high voltage electrode.

In one embodiment, the conductive mirror is positioned at or outside andelectrically connected to the wall of the vacuum enclosure.

In one embodiment, the transparent conductive shield forms part of avacuum barrier at either a wall of the vacuum enclosure or a wall of thehigh-voltage electrode.

In one embodiment, a flow path is provided from one side of thetransparent conductive shield to another side of the transparentconductive shield to equalise pressure between the one side and theother side.

In one embodiment, the transparent conductive shield comprises atransparent substrate having a transparent conductive layer provided onthe transparent substrate.

In one embodiment, the transparent conductive layer is a patternedconductive layer.

In one embodiment, the transparent conductive layer is a conductivefilm.

In one embodiment, the transparent conductive layer consists of indiumtin oxide.

In one embodiment, the transparent substrate is a glass.

In one embodiment, the remote module is removably mounted to the wall ofthe vacuum enclosure.

According to a fifth aspect, there is provided an x-ray gun comprisingthe electron beam apparatus being an embodiment of the fourth aspect anda target assembly arranged such that the electron beam from the electronbeam generator irradiates an x-ray emission target portion of the targetassembly.

According to a sixth aspect, there is provided a rotary vacuum seal fora rotating shaft, the seal comprising: a bore for accommodating theshaft and having a terminal aperture at each of high pressure and lowpressure ends; a chamber surrounding and circumferentially adjoining thebore at a position intermediate between the high pressure and lowpressure ends; and a flow path extending from the chamber to a portsuitable for connection to a vacuum pump.

In one embodiment, the bore is substantially cylindrical between each ofthe high pressure end and the chamber and the low pressure end and thechamber.

In one embodiment, the chamber is substantially cylindrical.

In one embodiment, the chamber has a minimum internal dimension acrossthe longitudinal axis of the bore of at least 120% that of the bore.

In one embodiment, the seal comprises a rotary bearing for rotatablysupporting the shaft in the bore, the bearing optionally being providedas a pair of rotary bearings, preferably roller bearings, at each ofhigh and low pressure ends of the bore.

In one embodiment, the seal further comprises the shaft accommodated inthe bore.

In one embodiment, the shaft is substantially cylindrical.

In one embodiment, the bore and shaft are dimensioned such that apressure of 1 bar maintained at the high pressure end and a pressure of1 mbar maintained in the chamber results in a mass flow rate of nitrogenat standard temperature between the high pressure end and the chamber ofless than 1 mbar l/s.

In one embodiment, the bore and shaft are dimensioned such that apressure of 1 mbar maintained in the chamber and a pressure of 10-5 mbarmaintained at the low pressure end results in a mass flow rate ofnitrogen between the chamber and the low pressure end of less than 10-3mbar l/s.

According to a seventh aspect, there is provided a target assembly foran x-ray source, comprising: a vacuum housing; an x-ray emission target;and a rotary vacuum seal being an embodiment of the sixth aspect,provided to a wall of the housing, wherein the x-ray emission target ismounted on the shaft.

According to an eighth aspect, there is provided a rotary targetassembly for an x-ray source, the assembly comprising: an x-ray emissiontarget; a vacuum housing; a shaft mounting the target and traversing awall of the vacuum housing; a bearing rotatably supporting the spindle;and a bearing housing supporting the bearing and mounted on the wall ofthe vacuum housing, wherein the bearing housing is mounted by atorque-limiter such that when the torque between the bearing housing andthe vacuum housing exceeds a predetermined torque, the bearing housingrotates relative to the vacuum housing.

In one embodiment, the torque-limiter comprises a part which is arrangedto inhibit rotation between the vacuum housing and the bearing housingand which is arranged to shear under the predetermined torque.

In one embodiment, the torque-limiter comprises a part which applies africtional force between the vacuum housing and the bearing housing andwhich is arranged to allow the vacuum housing and the bearing housing toslide relative to one another under the predetermined torque.

In one embodiment, one of the bearing housing and the vacuum housing hasa flange and the other of the bearing housing and the vacuum housing hasa clamping assembly; and the clamping assembly is arranged to apply thefrictional force to the flange.

In one embodiment, the clamping assembly includes an energy-absorbingplate arranged to contact one side of the flange and a clamp arranged tourge the flange against the energy-absorbing plate.

In one embodiment, the energy absorbing plate is annular.

In one embodiment, the clamp comprises rolling or sliding bearings as aclamping portion to permit the flange to freely slide against theclamping portion.

In one embodiment, the clamp is provided with a bias spring to adjustthe clamping force with which the clamp means is urged against theenergy absorbing plate.

In one embodiment, at least one of the flange and the plate iscircumferentially continuous along a path at which the at least one ofthe flange and the plate contacts the other of the flange and the plate.

In one embodiment, the clamp is mounted to the energy-absorbing plate.

In one embodiment, the flange and energy-absorbing plate are selected tobe mutually non-galling at temperature below 100° C.

In one embodiment, the clamping assembly is arranged to provide over 50kg, optionally over 80 kg, of force between the flange and theenergy-absorbing plate.

In one embodiment, the clamping assembly is arranged to limit the torquetransferred between the bearing housing and the vacuum housing after thepredetermined torque has been exceeded to less than 10 Nm.

In one embodiment, the predetermined torque is less than 10 Nm.

According to a ninth aspect, there is provided x-ray gun comprising: anelectron beam generator and a rotary target assembly being an embodimentof the eighth aspect arranged such that the electron beam from theelectron beam generator irradiates a target portion of the x-rayemission target.

According to a tenth aspect, there is provided a rotary x-ray emissiontarget for generating x-ray radiation under electron beam irradiation,comprising: a support hub defining a predetermined axis of rotation ofthe target, and a plurality of target plates, each consisting of, targetmaterial, supported on the hub, wherein the plates are arranged on thehub to provide an annular target region about the axis of rotation.

In one embodiment, the target plates are arranged spaced apart from oneanother in a circumferential direction of the target region such thatthe target material of the target region is interrupted between thetarget plates.

In one embodiment, the interruption of the target material in the targetmaterial represents no more than 10%, preferably no more than 1%,further preferably no more than 0.1% of a total circumferential pathwithin the target region.

In one embodiment, the target plates abut one another or overlap toprovide a substantially continuous target region of target material.

In one embodiment, each of the target plates are anchored to the hub ata relatively radially inward position of the plate and projectrelatively radially outward of the hub.

In one embodiment, each of the target plates is in the form of annularsectors.

In one embodiment, the target further comprises a plurality of shieldelements supported on the hub and arranged to overlie portions of thetarget region at which target plates abut or overlap, or at which targetmaterial is absent.

In one embodiment, the shield elements are arranged to overliecircumferential-direction edge portions of the target plates.

In one embodiment, the shield elements are axially spaced from thetarget plates at a position within the target region.

In one embodiment, the shield elements are formed from material havingatoms or ions of predominantly lower atomic number than the targetmaterial.

In one embodiment, the shield elements are formed of beryllium alloy oraluminium alloy.

In one embodiment, the target material is tungsten or tungsten alloy.

In one embodiment, the target plates, in the target region, have athickness less than 200% of the electron penetration depth in the targetmaterial at 750 keV, preferably less than 150%, more preferably lessthan 125%.

In one embodiment, the hub has mounting means for mounting the hub to abearing for rotation about the axis of rotation.

In one embodiment, the hub has a first radially inner region ofrelatively reduced thickness and a second radially outward region ofrelatively increased thickness.

In one embodiment, the second region is provided with a plurality ofradially-extending passages for cooling fluid; the relatively reducedthickness of the first region defines a recess in an axial face of thehub; and the plurality of passages terminate in corresponding portsprovided in a circumferential wall of the recess.

In one embodiment, the plurality of passages are so connected as todefine at least one continuous flow path extending from and returning tothe wall of the recess.

In one embodiment, the hub comprises a coolant distributor located inthe recess and providing: a coolant inlet port and a coolant outletport; a supply path for coolant supplied to the inlet port to the atleast one continuous flow path; and a return path for coolant returnedfrom the at least one continuous flow path to the at least one outletport.

In one embodiment, the coolant distributor comprises a central bossprovided in the recess having the at least one inlet port and at leastone outlet port and optionally a plurality of pipes extending from theboss to the ports provided in the circumferential wall of the recess,the central boss having internal passages arranged to distributecoolant, optionally via the plurality of pipes, from the inlet port tothe at least one continuous flow path and from the at least onecontinuous flow path to the outlet port.

According to an eleventh aspect, there is provided an x-ray guncomprising: an electron beam generator and an x-ray emission targetbeing an embodiment of the ninth aspect rotatably positioned such thatelectrons from the electron beam generator irradiate a portion of theannular target region while the target rotates.

According to a twelfth aspect, there is provided an x-ray sourcecomprising: a cathode electrically connected to a high-voltage generatorfor emitting an electron beam to a target; and a shield electrodearranged to surround the cathode, the shield electrode having anaperture on the direction of a virtual line connecting the cathode tothe target, wherein the shield electrode is maintained at a potentialdifference relative to the target different to the cathode.

In one embodiment, the x-ray source further comprises an enclosure foraccommodating the cathode and the shield electrode, wherein the shieldelectrode is displaced between the cathode and the enclosure.

In one embodiment, the shield electrode has a plurality of electrodeelements, electrode element having an aperture and is being disposed tosurround the cathode.

In one embodiment, each of the plurality of electrode elements ismaintained at a different voltage such that the relative potentialbetween each of the electrode elements and the target becomes lower withproximity of the respective electrode element to the enclosure.

In one embodiment, the x-ray source further comprises a Wehnelt disposedaround the cathode, wherein the potential difference between the Wehneltand the target is greater than the potential difference potentialbetween the cathode and the target.

In one embodiment, the x-ray source further comprises a high voltagegenerator according to any one of claims 1 to 14 arranged to provide thepotential difference between the cathode and the target.

In one embodiment, the shield electrode has a second aperture at adifferent position to the aperture.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

To better understand the present invention, and to show how the same maybe carried into effect, reference will be made, by way of example only,to the accompanying Figures, in which:

FIG. 1 shows an example of a known x-ray source;

FIG. 2 shows a schematic overview of an x-ray source being an embodimentof the present invention;

FIG. 3 shows a schematic view of an electron beam gun in the embodimentof FIG. 2;

FIG. 4 shows an enlarged view of the high-voltage electrode of theelectron beam gun in FIG. 3;

FIG. 5 shows another detail of the high-voltage electrode of theelectron beam gun in FIG. 3;

FIG. 6 shows a detail of a remote module for use with the electron beamgun shown in the embodiment of FIG. 2;

FIG. 7 is a schematic view showing the principles of generation of ahigh-flux microfocus x-ray beam from a focussed electron beam using arotating transmission target;

FIG. 8A shows a conventional type of vacuum seal for a rotating shaft;

FIG. 8B shows another conventional type of vacuum seal for a rotatingshaft;

FIG. 9 shows an embodiment of a vacuum seal for a rotating shaft used inthe embodiment of FIG. 2;

FIG. 10 shows an embodiment of a rotary target assembly suitable for usewith the x-ray source shown in FIG. 2;

FIG. 11A shows a hub for supporting target plates to form an embodimentof a rotary x-ray emission target for use in the embodiment of FIG. 2;

FIG. 11B shows a transverse section along the line I-II shown in FIG.11A;

FIG. 12A shows a portion of an embodiment of a rotary target assemblysuitable for use in the embodiment of FIG. 2;

FIG. 12B shows a transverse section along the line III-IV in FIG. 12A.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Basic Construction and General Principles

X-rays may be produced by irradiating a target made of a materialcontaining a large proportion of high atomic number atoms or ions with asuitably high-energy electron beam. The electron beam is produced byaccelerating electrons across a large potential difference and thenguiding the beam to the target. The electrons in the electron beaminteract with the electric field of the high atomic number nuclei andemit x-ray photons through the Bremsstrahlung process. The x-rays thusgenerated have a continuous spectrum, having an upper energy limitdetermined by the energy of the incident electrons.

However, with an exemplary electron beam of 100 keV, only 1% of incidentelectron beam energy is typically converted into x-ray radiation; theremainder is deposited in the target as heat. While the proportion ofbeam energy which is converted into x-ray radiation increases withincreasing electron beam energy, for most commercial and researchapplications, the majority of the beam energy is deposited in the targetas heat.

Since x-rays produced through the Bremsstrahlung process are emittedwith an angular distribution, a beam of x-rays may be derived from thesame side of the target as the incident beam, in reflection mode, orfrom the opposite side of the target to the incident beam, intransmission mode. For high-resolution imaging, transmission mode ispreferred, since the electron beam can be focussed to a small spot,leading to the creation of a small-dimension x-ray source. However,since the target must be thin enough not to absorb the emitted x-rays,targets used in transmission mode cannot easily dissipate the thermalenergy generated by a high flux of electrons.

A known x-ray source that is suitable for CT imaging is shown in FIG. 1.The x-ray source of FIG. 1 is encased in a vacuum enclosure 910, whichis pumped to a high vacuum, typically 10⁻⁵ mbar or better. Such vacuumsare achieved by ensuring that the enclosure is suitably vacuum-sealedand then by applying a suitable vacuum pump, such as a turbo pump, topump port 911. High vacuum is necessary to support the electron beam.

The vacuum enclosure is held at ground potential, and a high-voltage isgenerated at a high-voltage electrode 923 by high-voltage generator 920.In high-voltage generator 920, high-voltage electrode 923 is providedwithin the enclosure 910 and is raised to a suitably high (negative)potential difference relative to the grounded enclosure 910 by voltagemultiplier 922.

In the example of FIG. 1, voltage multiplier 922 is a Cockroft-Waltonvoltage multiplier, consisting of a network of appropriately arrangedcapacitors and resistors, which accepts an alternating input voltagethrough input isolation transformer 927 and outputs a high-voltagenegative DC potential to electrode 923. Such high-voltage generators arewell known in the art, and the voltage multiplication factor isdetermined by the number of series capacitors on each leg of themultiplier and the value of those capacitors.

However, the voltage attainable at the high-voltage electrode, inpractice, is limited by the voltage at which the high potentialdifference which exists between high-voltage electrode 923 and thegrounded vacuum enclosure 910 will cause residual gas in the vacuumenclosure 910 to ionise. Such ionisation causes the high voltageachieved to dissipate through arc discharge to the wall of the enclosure910. The voltage achievable in practice is thus limited by a number offactors.

A first factor is the degree of vacuum achievable within the chamber,since softer, i.e., higher-pressure vacuums will undergo electricalbreakdown at lower voltages. At vacuums of 10⁻⁴ mbar or better, thevacuum dielectric strength is near maximum.

A second factor is the distance of the surface of the high-voltageelectrode 923 from the wall of the chamber, closer distances of approachbeing associated with a lower voltage at which electrical breakdown willoccur. Such distances do not, in practice, scale linearly with voltage;at high voltages, ions which might be generated at sub-breakdowndensities can be accelerated and can themselves generate secondary ions.The density of secondary ions along the path of an accelerated ion canbe sufficiently high to trigger a discharge event, even over longdistances.

A third factor is the shape of the high-voltage electrode 923, assharply-curved surfaces concentrate potential gradients and encourageionisation. Therefore the shape of the high-voltage electrode 923 isusually provided in a cylindrical shape, bell-shape or a toroidal-shapeto ensure that those portions of the high-voltage electrode 923 whichare nearest to the walls 910 do not exhibit a high radius of curvature.

Another route by which the high-voltage electrode 923 could discharge isthrough the components which accumulate various potentials within thevoltage multiplier 922. Therefore, the voltage multiplier itself isenclosed within an elongate insulating bushing 924, which extends from arear wall of the enclosure 910 and which supports the high-voltageelectrode 923 at its other end. The interior of bushing 924 may befilled with an insulating substance, such as dielectric oil, to furtherinhibit discharge within the bushing. Bushing 924 is here cylindrical.

A final discharge route is possible along outer surface of bushing 924.Bushing 924 must be made sufficiently long to reduce the potentialgradient along the bushing and to inhibit such discharges. Again, themaximum safe length of bushing 924 does not scale linearly with voltage.

However, in the design of x-ray sources, and high-voltage systems ingeneral, it is recognised that under certain conditions even awell-designed system will undergo unintended arc discharge between thehigh-voltage electrode and a nearby surface at ground potential.However, in vacuum systems which need to be opened for maintenance,micro-cavities within parts of the vacuum system can momentarily releaseenough gas to drop the vacuum dielectric strength and permit discharge.In such events, a very large current will flow from the voltagemultiplier to the ground through the arc which, if unimpeded, will tendto damage the components of the voltage multiplier. Therefore, a surgeresistor 928 is installed between the output of the voltage multiplier922 and the high-voltage electrode 923 to limit the maximum currentwhich will flow in the event of discharge of the total stored potentialin the high-voltage multiplier along an unintended path.

The function of the high-voltage generator is to provide a suitablylarge (negative) voltage to accelerate electrons from an electron sourcemaintained at the high voltage to form the electron beam. The electronsource 920 in the known example of FIG. 1 is a heated filament 921provided at the high-voltage electrode 923. The high-voltage electrode923 has a small aperture at a forward surface of the electrode throughwhich the filament 921 protrudes. The filament is also connected to thevoltage multiplier 922 and is thus maintained at substantially the samevoltage as the high-voltage electrode 923.

The heated filament is heated to a temperature at which the electrons inthe filament are liberated by thermionic emission and can travel awayfrom the filament in free space under influence of the high potentialdifference between the high-voltage electrode 923 and the groundedvacuum enclosure 910. To achieve this high temperature, an oscillatingpotential is applied to the filament on top of the high voltage alreadyachieved with the voltage multiplier 922, by means of isolatingtransformer 926, which also inhibits discharge of the high voltage toground through the heating current supply. The isolating transformer forthe heating current supply is also contained within insulating bushing924.

The high-voltage electrode 923, in addition to providing theaccelerating potential relative to ground also acts as a Faraday shieldto screen the interior of the electrode from the potential differencebetween the electrode 923 and the wall of the vacuum enclosure 910.Therefore, in the arrangement of FIG. 1, the high-voltage electrode 923is also termed in the art a “Faraday housing”. The Faraday housing thuscan also screen any control electronics, conceptually represented ascontrol module 925, at the high voltage side of the voltage multiplier922, from the potential gradients within vacuum enclosure 910. Theinterior of the high-voltage electrode 923, as with bushing 924, may befilled with an insulating material, such as a dielectric oil, aninsulating gas or a potting resin, to further reduce the possibility ofdischarge within the bushing.

Therefore, in FIG. 1, when the high-voltage electrode 923 is raised to asuitably high potential, and when filament 921 is raised to a suitablyhigh temperature, a beam of electrons will be accelerated from thefilament, which is maintained at a voltage close to the high voltage,for example at a voltage within 0.1% to 1% difference from the highvoltage, and is directed by the high-voltage electrode 923 toward thehousing of the enclosure 910 in a forward direction. The bell shape ortoroidal shape of high-voltage electrode 923 creates anappropriately-shaped isopotential which encourages the electrons to beaccelerated in a forward beam, rather than with a broad angulardistribution. Alternatively, a cylindrical electrode with radiused edgescan be used together with a planar or slightly depressed focus cupmaintained at the same potential as the high-voltage electrode andarranged to surround the filament and having a geometry to direct theelectrons as a forward beam. The combination of electron source andhigh-voltage generator shown in FIG. 1 thus acts as an electron beamgenerator.

In such a configuration, the forward face of the high-voltage electrode923 closest to the filament 921 acts as a so-called “Wehnelt”, whichacts as a control grid and convergent electrostatic lens, such that bycontrol of the voltage of the high-voltage electrode 923 relative to thefilament 921, the electron beam can be progressively restricted to aforward pencil beam and eventually cut off due to the repulsive field ofthe Wehnelt. As mentioned above, the negative grid voltage of theelectrode relative to the accelerating voltage between the filament 921and the grounded enclosure can be set as 0.1% to 1% of the acceleratingvoltage, with 0.1% providing a small amount of beam shaping to encourageforward emission, and 1% cutting off the beam entirely. However, withdifferent geometries, the ratio of grid voltage to accelerating voltagemay be chosen to suit the application requirements. The Faraday housingand Wehnelt can be integral, or can be discrete. In some applications,the Faraday housing and the Wehnelt can be set to have the samepotential as the filament, or the Faraday shield could be set to havethe same potential as the filament while the Wehnelt has a smallnegative potential relative to the filament.

The electron beam produced from the filament passes into a magnetic lens930, having focussing coils 931, which functions to focus the electronbeam to a spot on a target 941. Target 941, in the region at which thespot is produced, includes a material which emits x-rays under electronbeam irradiation. For example, tungsten or a similar material having ahigh atomic number and a high thermal conductivity may be used. Target941 is maintained at the same or a similar potential, such as groundpotential, as the enclosure.

The focussing of the electron beam before application to target 941 isadvantageous, since it is the size of the interaction volume of the beamwith target 941 that determines the size of the x-ray source used toimage a target. As may be understood from straightforward ray optics,when the size of the illumination source is large, the shadows cast byan opaque object placed between the source and the projection plane willhave soft edges and will therefore provide a lower-resolution image ofthe object; conversely, when the source is small, the shadows cast willbe sharp and the projected image will have a relatively higherresolution. So too with x-ray imaging; when the source is small, theimages produced will be sharper, have higher magnification and will thusprovide higher resolution and more information. Focussing of the beam toa small spot is therefore advantageous for 3D reconstruction in a CTprocess.

However, when the electron beam is focussed to a small spot size, whichcan include spots having dimensions on the order of microns in so-calledmicrofocus x-ray systems, the energy deposited per unit area at thelocation of the spot in the target is high, especially in the case ofhigh electron energies, leading to high x-ray photon energies, and forhigh electron fluxes, leading to high x-ray fluxes. The deposited energynot converted to emitted x-rays, being the majority of the incident beamenergy, is dissipated as heat in the target.

There is therefore a problem that the target may begin to melt or deformunder the intense local heating. Therefore, to avoid thermally stressingthe target, the target is conventionally formed as an extended piece oftarget material which is continually moved through the focus spotsufficiently quickly to continually present a new, cold target surfaceto the incident beam and thus to ensure that even if the instantaneousincident energy density is large, the average energy deposited persecond per unit area in the target material does not become excessive.In the arrangement of FIG. 1, this is achieved by forming the target asa plate 941, and then by rotating the plate 941 about an axis by meansof shaft 942. Since the target 941 is also within the vacuum enclosure910, the shaft passes to the outside of the vacuum enclosure through avacuum seal 943.

The x-ray beam emitted from the target as a consequence of theirradiation of the target by the electron beam originating from filament921 leaves the vacuum enclosure through x-ray window 912. A targetobject may thus be interposed between x-ray window 912 and a suitabledetector such as a sheet of x-ray sensitive film, and x-ray images maybe acquired.

In the apparatus of FIG. 1, it is difficult to achieve a sufficientlyhigh voltage at the high-voltage electrode 923 for dense or extendedtarget objects without making the vacuum enclosure 910 extremely large.Further, it is difficult to make the bushing 924 sufficiently resistantto such a sufficiently high voltage. Particularly, it is difficult toachieve electron beams approaching or in excess of 500 keV, preferably750 keV. Therefore, the present inventor devised the modifiedarrangement shown in FIG. 2.

The x-ray source in FIG. 2, while retaining many structural andfunctional similarities, as will be evident to one skilled in the art,differs from that shown in FIG. 1 in several important aspects.Components having reference numbers 1xx in FIG. 2 should be taken tohave essentially similar construction and function to the componentsshown with corresponding reference numbers of the form 9xx in FIG. 1,except where otherwise described.

The High Voltage Generator

Firstly, the construction of the high-voltage generator 120 of theembodiment of FIG. 2 differs from that disclosed in FIG. 1.Specifically, the high-voltage generator 120 of FIG. 2 has a multi-stagevoltage multiplier 122, consisting of three individual Cockroft-Waltonvoltage multipliers 122 a, 122 b, 122 c arranged serially. The output ofeach individual voltage multiplier is connected to the input to the nextvoltage multiplier, except for the final voltage multiplier which has anoutput connected to the high-voltage electrode, such that thehigh-voltage electrode 123 a is an output electrode of the high-voltagegenerator taken as a whole. Further, the output of each voltagemultiplier except for the terminal voltage multiplier 122 a is connectedto a shield electrode 123 b, 123 c.

Each shield electrode 123 b, 123 c is disposed to surround, preferablyto coaxially surround, the high-voltage electrode 123 a, and also tosurround any shield electrodes which, in operation, achieve a higherpotential relative to it. Thus, shield electrode 123 c, surrounds shieldelectrode 123 b and high-voltage electrode 123 a. Although there arethree stages to the multi-stage voltage multiplier shown in FIG. 2, thenumber of stages can be varied and may, for example, omit the firststage 122 c and the first shield electrode 123 c. Alternatively, four ormore stages could be provided, each associated with its own shieldelectrode. It is advantageous that each shield electrode also has anemission aperture at a forward surface to permit free passage of theelectron beam generated from filament 121, and further advantageous thateach field electrode 123 b, 123 c and the high-voltage electrode 123 aat the exit point of the electron beam, follows an isopotential line, toavoid disturbing the beam trajectory. However, in most circumstances,cylindrical shield electrodes, optionally having radiused edges, aresufficient to avoid breakdown, and other geometries may be adoptedwithout limitation beyond practical constraints. The shield electrodescan be continuous, or can be formed of mesh. If formed of mesh, theapertures of the mesh can obviate the requirement for a defined emissionaperture.

The advantage of providing nested electrodes in the manner shown in FIG.2 is that a smaller potential difference exists between each shieldelectrode and the electrode which it immediately encloses than existsbetween the enclosed electrode and the wall of enclosure 110. As aresult of this arrangement, a potential difference, which would cause anarc in vacuum or a discharge along the bushing between two electrodesseparated by a given distance, will not cause an arc or discharge whenan electrode operating at an intermediate voltage is placed at anintermediate distance between those electrodes, due to the nonlinearbehaviour of the breakdown process with potential difference.

Advantageously, the intermediate or shield electrode is positionedapproximately equidistant between the high- and low-voltage surfaces,and is maintained at a potential intermediate between those surfaces.Therefore, in a generator such as that shown in FIG. 2, the high-voltageelectrode 123 a may be maintained at 750 kV, the first shield electrode123 b may be maintained at 500 kV and the second shield electrode 123 cmay be maintained at 250 kV each relative to grounded enclosure 110.However, in other embodiments, potentials between the shield electrodesmay alternatively be at least 150 kV, at least 200 kV, or at least 300kV.

For example, in some configurations, with 500 kV of potential betweentwo cylindrical electrodes, a pressure of 1×10⁻⁴ mbar and a spacingbetween the two electrodes of 150 mm, breakdowns can occur with afrequency more than hourly, but the same configuration having anadditional intermediate equidistant shield electrode maintained at 250kV will exhibit breakdown rarely.

Therefore, an improved (higher) degree of potential difference can bemaintained between high-voltage electrode 123 a and the grounded vacuumenclosure 110 whilst keeping the overall size of the apparatusrelatively small. The provision of such a high voltage at thehigh-voltage electrode 123 a allows electron energies of 750 keV to beachieved in the electron beam exiting through the aperture in theoutput, first and second shield electrodes, entering magnetic lens 130and being brought to a focus on target 500. Therefore, very high x-rayphoton energies, namely an electron beam spectrum with a peak yield at500 keV and extending up to 750 keV, may be achieved in the x-ray beamproduced from target 500.

In the multi-stage voltage multiplier shown in FIG. 2, it is alsoadvantageous that the isolating transformer providing the alternatingheater current to filament 121 be divided into three isolatingtransformers 126 c, 126 b and 126 a, in sequence, to avoid the need forisolating transformers that are rated higher than the potentialdifference between each stage of the multiplier, and to maintain allcomponents at a given position along a length of the bushing 124 at asimilar potential and thus to avoid the need for enhanced insulationwithin the bushing 124.

Also advantageously, surge resistors 128 a, 128 b and 128 c are providedat the output of each stage of the multi-stage voltage multiplier. Doingso allows each surge resistor to experience only a proportion of thetotal voltage, allowing lower-resistance resistors to be used for agiven voltage and maximum allowable surge current. For example, as shownin FIG. 3 omitting the drive transformers for the filament for clarityand using a notional value for each resistor R_(S) between the output ofone voltage multiplier and the input to the next, and providing aterminal surge resistor 128 a having a value R_(S)/2 allows eachintermediate resistor to experience only one-third of the total voltage.Further, having the terminal resistor 128 a being selected to have thevalue R_(S)/2 additionally allows the voltage across each stage of thevoltage multiplier to collapse at the same rate (assuming all capacitorsare of equal value). Therefore, even if undesired breakdown shouldoccur, the energy can be safely dissipated. As a consequence, thebushing 124 need only be rated for 250 kV, since this is the maximumpotential difference that it will need to sustain during a breakdownevent. Finally, the intermediate resistors protect the voltagemultiplier from high currents associated with self capacitances of theelectrodes to each other, and protect all possible discharge paths.

In practice, the value of the surge resistors 128 a, 128 b and 128 c canbe selected according to the requirements in place; lowering the valueof the surge resistors will increase the efficiency of the transfer ofthe drive voltage to the upper stages, while raising the value of thesurge resistors will tend to improve the protection of the multipliercomponents against discharge events.

A further advantage of the configuration of the high-voltage generatorshown in FIG. 3 is that a diminished potential difference exists betweenthe elements of the high-voltage generator within bushing 124 and theshield electrode surrounding any section of bushing. Therefore, thethickness of the bushing can be reduced, and need not be rated for thefull potential difference between high-voltage electrode 123 a andearth. Rather, it need only be rated for the maximum potentialdifference between nested electrodes, for example for 250 kV.

Of course, the arrangement shown in FIG. 2 is purely exemplary, and anumber of modifications may be made, depending on the engineeringrequirements for the x-ray source.

For example, in FIG. 2, the shield electrodes 123 b and 123 csubstantially enclose the high-voltage electrode 123 a, but inarrangements wherein the important dimension is the radius of the vacuumenclosure 110 with respect to the beam path, and wherein additionalclearance may be provided between the high-voltage electrode 123 a andthe front wall 110 a of the enclosure along the beam emission direction,each of the two shield electrodes need only circumferentially enclosethe high-voltage electrode. Such a design would, however, require thebushing 124 to be rated to sustain the full potential difference betweenthe high-voltage electrode and the grounded vacuum enclosure 110 acrossits thickness.

Using the arrangement shown in FIG. 2, even if a very high electron beamenergy is not required, the apparatus can be made more dimensionallycompact for a given beam energy. However, in embodiments of the presentinvention, it is presently preferred that at least 150 kV, preferably250 kV, and most preferably 300 kV is provided by each stage 128 a, 128b and 128 c of the voltage generator. Such an arrangement allows thebeam energies of 750 keV to be provided from a compact enclosure.

Also, in some embodiments, the shield electrodes can each be driven bydifferent high-voltage generators to the generator driving thehigh-voltage electrode 123 a, for example if there is not considered tobe significant likelihood of discharge along the length of the bushing,rather than the series arrangement of generators described above.

The High-Voltage Electrode Control System

In the arrangement of FIG. 2, it is sometimes necessary to providecontrol signals to and from a control module located within high-voltageelectrode 123 a, in order to monitor the state of the filament 921 andto control the temperature and relative potential of the filament 921,for example. However, it is not preferred to simply run control linesalong the bushing, as these would need to be isolated at each stage ofthe high-voltage generator to prevent discharge of the high voltagealong the control lines.

To solve this problem, the arrangement of FIG. 2 adopts an opto-coupledcontrol mechanism, involving photoemitters 201 a and photodetectors 201b (not shown) functioning as a control module mounted at and enclosedwithin high-voltage electrode 123 a and communicating optically withcorresponding photoemitters 202 a and photodetectors 202 b (not shown)functioning as a remote module mounted at the wall of the vacuumenclosure 110. The photoemitters and photodetectors mutually relaysignals, analogue and digital, through the vacuum from the wall of thevacuum enclosure 110 to the interior of the high-voltage electrode 123a, and vice versa, without providing any conductive path, advantageouslyenabled by apertures in each electrode 123 a, 123 b and 123 c whichpermit the light of the wavelength used in the communication to pass.

In the embodiment of FIG. 2, the photoemitters 201 a, 202 a arepre-focused near infrared LEDs, while the photodetectors 201 b, 202 bare photodiodes operating in the near infrared.

Owing to the electron beam emitted from the electron beam gun 120,residual gas remaining within the vacuum enclosure 110 can, however,become ionised and tend to drift to regions of high or low potential,depending on the charge on the relevant ion. Such ions can deposit onthe optical surfaces of the photoemitters and photodetectors, which arenormally insulating plastic.

Therefore, over extended operation and periods without maintenance orcleaning of these optical surfaces, there may be a tendency for thecommunications to fail over time due to the contamination of the opticalsurfaces.

One solution to this problem is to provide transparent shields in frontof each respective photoemitter and photodetector to enable easiercleaning and to permit replacement of the shields when they becomecontaminated. However, when conventional transparent plastics or glassesare used for such shields, the present inventor has discovered thatthere still remains the likelihood that the efficiency of the opticalcommunications will degrade over time, possibly causing unpredictableapparatus malfunctions.

The present inventor has realised that the tendency of plastic surfacesto easily acquire and maintain a static electric charge from theincident ions could be an important contributing factor in thisphenomenon. Therefore, in the arrangement of FIG. 2, transparent shields203 a, 203 b (not shown), 203 c and 203 d (not shown), each having atransparent conductive coating, are provided to cover each of therespective relay photoemitters and photodetectors 201 a, 201 b, 202 aand 202 b, such that the conductive coating is coupled either to thehigh-voltage electrode or the earthed walled vacuum enclosure 110,depending on the location of the shield.

In the embodiment of FIG. 2, the transparent shields are provided aswindows which form part of the vacuum seal of the high-voltage electrode123 a and the vacuum enclosure 110, respectively, and are arranged tohave their conductive coating on the side of the shield opposite to theside at which the photoemitter or photodetector is arranged, being theside exposed to the vacuum. Therefore, not only do the transparentshields collect any deposits which might otherwise have depositeddirectly on the photoemitter or the photodetector, they are also able,by virtue of the conductive coating, to dissipate local static chargeand are thus less likely to attract and retain such coating.

The conductive transparent shield can be provided by any meansconventionally known in the art. The arrangement of FIG. 2 employs atransparent glass substrate, such as borosilicate, coated with atransparent conductive coating of indium tin oxide (ITO), although othertransparent substrates and other transparent conductive coatings, forexample a conductive metal pattern deposited on a transparent plasticsubstrate, are also usable.

The arrangement of FIG. 2 also employs an additional countermeasureagainst unwanted deposits, shown in conjunction with photodetector 202 aprovided in the wall of the vacuum enclosure 110, although equallyapplicable to a photoemitter in the wall of the vacuum enclosure or aphotodetector or photoemitter within high-voltage electrode 123 a. Thedetail of this countermeasure is shown most clearly in FIG. 6, which isan enlargement of the remote module including photodetector 202 aforming part of the wall of vacuum enclosure 110.

In the arrangement of FIG. 6, the transparent conductive shield 203 ccovering photodetector 202 a and forming part of the vacuum seal ofvacuum chamber 110 is provided at the end of a channel 207 provided inhousing 205, which forms a removable part of the vacuum enclosure 110.Channel 207 has one end opening onto a portion of the vacuum enclosure110 which encloses high-voltage electrode 123 a and another endterminating in shield 203 c located in front of photodiode 202 a.Channel 207 has a bend, in the embodiment of FIG. 6 being anapproximately right-angled bend, and mirror 204 a is located in the bendof channel 207 to redirect light arriving from the photoemitter 201 aprovided in the high-voltage electrode 123 a into photodetector 202 a.

The provision of channel 207 and mirror 204 a is advantageous in thations which are produced due to the effect of the electron beam willtravel ballistically along the channel 207 and tend to deposit on thesurface of the mirror 204 a, rather than on shield 203 c. Mirror 204 amay easily be made of a conductive material, such as a metal, andtherefore even the tendency of ionised particles to deposit on mirror204 a due to the presence of static charge will be reduced. However, ifsuch deposits do occur, the mirror may easily be removed and replaced bydetaching housing 205 from vacuum enclosure 110 and replacing themirror, without the need to disturb the relatively more delicateconductive transparent shield 203 c.

However, if regular maintenance is scheduled for the apparatus, sucharrangements may not be necessary, and some or all of thesecountermeasures may be omitted. For example, FIG. 5 shows transparentconductive shield 203 b provided as part of the vacuum seal formed byhigh voltage electrode 123 a and covering photodetector 201 b, withphotodetector 201 b shown surrounded by insulating oil.

However, as shown in FIG. 4, the transparent shield 203 a need not beprovided as part of the vacuum seal provided by the vacuum enclosure orthe high-voltage electrode as such, but may be positioned at the vacuumenclosure or high-voltage electrode or within the vacuum enclosure orhigh-voltage electrode. If provided at a wall of the vacuum enclosure orhigh-voltage electrode, a vacuum relief channel 206 may be provided(shown in the embodiment of FIG. 4 in high-voltage electrode 123 a) topermit the space on each side of the transparent shield 203 a to achieveequal pressure.

In principle, the transparent shield could be mounted at some distancein front of the photodetector or photoemitter. Such arrangements would,however, need the shield to have a relatively larger area to activelyreduce contamination arriving at the photodetector or photoemitter.Therefore, the present arrangement, shown in FIG. 2, wherein thetransparent shields 203 a, 203 c are mounted at the high-voltageelectrode and the wall of the vacuum enclosure 110, is preferred.

Furthermore, the conductive shields may be provided only for thephotodetectors and photoemitters provided in the high-voltage electrode,only for the photodetectors and photoemitters provided at the wall ofthe vacuum enclosure 110, only for the photodetectors, or only for thephotoemitters, depending on the ease of reaching each of these parts,the ease of cleaning each of these parts, and empirically determinedrates of deposition on each.

Preferably, housing 205 shown in FIG. 6 is removably mounted from theremaining wall of vacuum enclosure 110 to enable user replacement ofmirror 204 a and cleaning of transparent shield 203 c, but housing 205could alternatively be formed integrally with the wall of vacuumenclosure 110, as required.

Low-Friction Rotary Vacuum Seal

Once the electron beam is emitted from the filament 121 located inhigh-voltage electrode 123 a, it is brought to a focus by magnetic lens131, and interacts with rotating target 500.

The process of x-ray beam generation from a microfocus electron beamspot on a rotating target is schematically shown in FIG. 7. However, dueto the high electron beam energy possible with the arrangement of FIG.2, as well as the high flux necessary to achieve excellentsignal-to-noise, the energy deposited into the microfocus spot on therotating target 941 can be very high. Therefore, either the coolingprovided to target 941 must be very efficient, the target 941 must havevery high thermal capacity, or the target material must movesufficiently rapidly past the microfocus position of the electron beamso as not to deform or melt under the thermal load.

To achieve a sufficiently fast transit of the target material past themicrofocus point using a rotating target disc requires a target disc oflarge diameter driven at a high angular speed. In a rotating targetarrangement such as that shown in FIG. 1, the target disc 941 may bedriven by a shaft 942 which passes from inside the vacuum enclosure 910to the outside of the vacuum enclosure 910 via rotary vacuum seal 943,which permits rotation of the shaft while inhibiting a flow of gas fromoutside the vacuum enclosure 910 to the interior. A conventional vacuumseal arrangement is shown in FIG. 8a , wherein housing 943 a defines abore 943 c through which shaft 942 passes, and supports seal elements943 b which inhibit the flow of gas from one end of the bore 943 c tothe other. Seal elements 943 b can be provided as O-ring seals, lipseals, or even ferrofluid seals. However, all of these arrangements havethe disadvantage that the contact between shaft 942 and seals 943 bgenerates friction in the system, and limits practical speeds to around6000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Alternative arrangements, such asdriving the target using a rotating magnetic field and a follower magneton the target, have difficulty transmitting enough torque for fast yetcontrolled rotation of large targets.

A known alternative to such mechanical seals is shown in FIG. 8b , inwhich the seals 943 b are absent, and the bore 943 c is sized so as toclosely fit shaft 942. The clearance between bore and shaft is shown asdimension C on FIG. 8b , and may be, for example, for a bore length of60 mm and a bore diameter of 20 mm, 20 μm. Such a close fit betweenshaft 942 and bore 943 c inhibits the flow of gas from a high-pressureside (atmosphere) to a low-pressure side (vacuum).

The arrangement of FIG. 8b reduces friction, as no seal elements are insliding contact with rotating shaft 942, but requires very closetolerances to operate. Further, the exemplary clearance of 20 μm in theconventional seal of FIG. 8b , although inhibiting free flow of gas,still permits some viscous flow of the gas along the length of the borebetween the atmospheric side and the vacuum side. The conductance(volume flow rate) through such a seal is on the order of 0.0005 l/s,and hence the mass flow rate from the pressure drop from atmosphere to10⁻⁵ mbar is 0.5 mbar l/s (1000 mbar×0.0005 l/s).

Therefore, very powerful pumps are needed, capable of removing a massflow through the seal of 0.5 mbar l/s from a cavity at 10⁻⁵ mbar, i.e. avolume flow rate of 5×10⁴ l/s, to maintain the vacuum side at asufficiently high vacuum for operation of the high-voltage generator andthe electron beam apparatus.

Reducing the clearance further is technically challenging, and contactbetween the rotating shaft 942 and the walls of the bore 943 c willcause large amounts of frictional heating and damage, and in the case ofa large rotary target rotating at high angular velocities, willpotentially result in a large transfer of torque to the vacuum housing.Therefore, the embodiment of FIG. 2 advantageously makes use of animproved vacuum seal for a rotating shaft which is able to avoidexcessively tight clearances but which is also able to effectivelyinhibit the flow of gas from the atmospheric side of the bearing to thevacuum side of the bearing.

An embodiment of a non-contact rotary vacuum seal used in the embodimentof FIG. 2 is shown in FIG. 9. The seal has a housing 403 defining a bore301, through which target drive shaft 401 passes. The bore has terminalapertures at vacuum and atmospheric ends 301 a and 301 b respectively,and an intermediate chamber 302 provided between the high-pressure endand the low-pressure end. Chamber 302 communicates via a flow path 303to a pump or a pump port to which a pump may be coupled. In someembodiments, chamber 302 will have a minimum internal dimension acrossthe longitudinal axis of the bore of less than 120% of the minimuminternal dimension across the longitudinal axis of the bore itself.However, in some embodiments, the chamber need only be greater inminimum internal diameter relative to the bore by less than 30 times,even less than 20 times, the minimum clearance between the bore and theshaft.

In operation, a backing pump (not shown) is provided to vacuum port 303.This is able to maintain the chamber 302 at a low pressure of around 3mbar. The clearance between shaft 401 and the wall of bore 301 iscomparable to that shown in FIG. 8b , but the presence of intermediatechamber 302 maintained at a lower pressure is able to effectivelyrestrict the total flow of gas through the seal.

Assuming a pressure of about 3 mbar maintained in the chamber, gas flowsfrom the atmospheric side, maintained at approximately 1 bar, under theregime of viscous flow, when the mean free path of the gas molecules issmaller than the clearance between the shaft and the wall of the bore.

As the portion 301 c of bore 301 between atmospheric-end terminalaperture 301 b and intermediate chamber 302 is, using an exemplarylength of 30 mm, about half the length of the bore of FIG. 8b , theviscous-flow conductance is about double that of FIG. 8b , on the orderof 0.001 l/s. The mass flow into intermediate chamber 302 from theatmosphere is thus about 1 mbar l/s. At 3 mbar in intermediate chamber302, this is 0.33 l/s. A small backing pump maintaining a vacuum of 3mbar in intermediate chamber 302 will generally be able to maintain the3 mbar pressure in the intermediate chamber 302 by extracting 0.33 l/s.

However, at a pressure of 3 mbar, the mean free path of, for example,nitrogen, the primary constituent of air, at room temperature, is around20 μm, comparable to the clearance between the bore 301 and the shaft401. When the mean free path is comparable to or greater than theclearance, the flow of gas molecules between intermediate chamber 302and high-vacuum terminal aperture 301 a of bore 301 along section 301 dof bore 301 operates under the molecular flow regime, in which theconductance along section 301 d of the bore from the intermediatechamber 302 does not substantially depend on the pressure in theintermediate chamber 302.

Over a length of 30 mm and with a clearance again between shaft 401 andbore 301 of 20 μm, the molecular-flow conductance through section 301 dof bore 301 may be estimated to be approximately 10⁻⁴ l/s, or a tenth ofthat through the section in region 301 c of bore 301. The mass flow ratefrom chamber 302 to high-vacuum terminal aperture 301 a through section301 d of the bore 301 is thus approximately 3×10⁻⁴ mbar l/s. This is afactor of more than 10³ smaller than the mass flow through section 301 cof the bore 301, and a factor of more than 10³ smaller than the flowthrough the seal of FIG. 8b , due both to the proportion of gas removedfrom chamber 302 through flow passage 303, and to the operation ofsection 301 d of bore 301 in the molecular, rather than viscous, flowregime.

Accordingly, the arrangement of FIG. 9 is able to provide a moreeffective vacuum seal than the arrangement of FIG. 8b without incurringthe frictional losses involved in providing the seals of FIG. 8a andwithout reducing the engineering tolerances beyond those required forthe arrangement of FIG. 8 b.

Although the bore 301 shown in FIG. 9 is substantially cylindrical, asis intermediate chamber 302, this is not essential to the operation ofthe embodiment of FIG. 9. Particularly, the bore 301 may have othergeometries, without limitation, for example having a slight taper.However, a cylindrical bore is used in FIG. 9 since it is easy tomanufacture and exhibits a constant clearance with a cylindrical shaft.Furthermore, the portion 301 c of the bore connecting the atmosphericaperture 301 b with intermediate chamber 302 need not have the samedimensions as the portion 301 d of the bore connecting intermediatechamber 302 with the vacuum aperture 301 a. However, again, forsimplicity of manufacture the embodiment of FIG. 9 maintains thesesections of bore to have identical dimensions. Finally, although acylindrical chamber 302 is advantageous from a point of view ofmachining, this is not essential.

In some embodiments, the dimensions are selected such that pressure of 1bar maintained at the high pressure end and a pressure of 1 mbarmaintained in the chamber results in a mass flow rate of nitrogen atstandard temperature between the high pressure end and the chamber ofless than 1 mbar l/s. In some embodiment, the dimensions are selectedsuch that a pressure of 1 mbar maintained in the chamber and a pressureof 10⁻⁵ mbar maintained at the low pressure end results in a mass flowrate of nitrogen between the chamber and the low pressure end of lessthan 10⁻³ mbar l/s.

When put into practice in the embodiment of FIG. 2, a roller bearing isprovided at each end of bore 301 to maintain the shaft 401 substantiallycentred within the bearing. In such a configuration, the arrangementprovides an integrated rotary vacuum seal and bearing for a rotatingshaft, and any difficulty of aligning external bearings with the seal iseliminated.

Bearing Overtorque Limiter and Kinetic Energy Absorber

In the arrangement of FIG. 9, there remains a possibility that failureof one or other roller bearing could cause the shaft 401 to contact thewall of bore 301. Since shaft 401 is typically driven to a very highspeed by motor 144 acting via gearbox 145, in such a situation, thefrictional force of the shaft against the wall of the bore 301 couldapply a large torque to the vacuum seal and any components of theapparatus connected to it. Alternately, the ingress of contaminants orparticulates into the clearance between the shaft 401 and the rollerbearing could cause a similar frictional force. In the case of alarge-diameter rapidly-rotating target disc such as that shown in FIG.2, the frictional force resulting could be such as to rapidly heat theshaft 401, and cause the shaft 401 to seize within the roller bearing.The entire energy stored in the rotating target, acting in the manner ofa flywheel, would then be transferred via the resulting torque to thebearing housing, incurring the possibility of substantial mechanicaldamage to the apparatus as a whole and potential risk to an operator.

Therefore, the arrangement of FIG. 2 includes a rotary target assemblyof the form shown in detail in FIG. 10, having a torque-limiter toprevent excessive torque being transferred from the bearing housing tothe remainder of the apparatus in case of failure, and a kinetic energyabsorber to dissipate safely the kinetic energy transferred to thebearing housing. In FIG. 2, these functional elements are providedthrough common aspects of target assembly 400 shown in FIG. 10.

In the target assembly shown in FIG. 10, a rotary x-ray target 500 ismounted on drive shaft 401, which shaft 401 passes through the wall ofvacuum enclosure 110 and is supported by roller bearings 402 a and 402 bmounted in bearing housing 403. Bearing housing 403 is removably mountedto the wall of vacuum enclosure 110 and seals against it by means ofseal 409, thus forming part of vacuum enclosure 110. Rotation of shaft401 drives target 500 in rotation.

In the embodiment of FIG. 2, the flow of gas through bore 404 in bearinghousing 403, through which shaft 401 passes, is inhibited by employingthe rotary vacuum seal described in relation to FIG. 9. The details ofthe seal are, however, not important for the operation of the torquelimiting functionality and the kinetic energy absorbing functionality.

In FIG. 10, bearing housing 403 is generally cylindrical in externalprofile, and has a flange 411 extending radially from an outer radialsurface of bearing housing 403. Flange 411 is annular, and is in slidingcontact with a corresponding annular plate 412 of vacuum enclosure 110,such that the bearing assembly 403 is able to rotate around the axisdefined by its bore 404 relative to the remainder of vacuum enclosure110 with a surface of flange 411 in sliding frictional contact withplate 412. Outer circumference of bearing housing 403 is rotatablyinserted into a corresponding circular aperture 410 formed in the wallof vacuum enclosure 110, which together provide a vacuum seal by meansof annular seal element 409.

A clamp 420 is provided to urge the flange 411 and the plate 412 intosliding frictional contact. Clamp 420 comprises roller bearing 421rotatably mounted on shaft 422 a of arm 422 and is retained by end cap422 b. Roller bearing 421 is mounted so as to rotate about an axis whichis a radius of bore 404. Roller bearing 421 is urged axially relative tobore 404 by spring 426, which applies axial force to collar 423 on whichroller bearing 421 is mounted via arm 422.

Collar 423 is arranged to slide axially on shaft 424 a of adjustingscrew 424, which is itself retained within threaded bore 427 of housing110, in such a way that rotation of cap 424 b of adjusting screw 424adjusts the distance between cap 424 b and collar 423, thus adjustingthe compression of spring 426 interposed between cap 424 b and collar423 and thereby adjusting the force applied between cap 424 b and collar423. Thus, the force applied via roller bearing 421 between flange 411and plate 412 may easily be adjusted.

In FIG. 10, two instances of the clamp are provided diametricallyopposite one another on either side of the bearing housing 403 toprovide urging force on either side of the bearing; this is, of course,exemplary, and a greater or lesser number of clamps 420 may be providedand spaced circumferentially about the axis of bore 404. Preferably,three or more such clamps, in equiangular spacing, are provided.

In operation, the compressive clamping force provided between flange 411and annular plate 412 is sufficiently large that the frictional forcebetween flange 411 and plate 412 inhibits rotation of the bearinghousing 403 relative to vacuum enclosure 110. However, if the shaft 401should seize relative to bearing housing 403, for example throughfailure of one of the roller bearings 402 a or 402 b, through failure ofa vacuum seal, or through contamination of bore 404 or displacement ofshaft 401 relative to bore 404 such that shaft 401 seizes in bore 404,the torque transferred from rotating target 500 via shaft 401 to bearinghousing 403 will be sufficient to overcome the static friction betweenflange 411 and plate 412 and thus the bearing assembly 403 will rotateas a whole relative to vacuum enclosure 110 and the remainder of theapparatus.

Although some torque will be transmitted via the sliding contact betweenflange 411 and plate 412 to vacuum enclosure 110, this transmittedtorque is substantially less than to the total torque which would havebeen applied to the vacuum enclosure 110 from target 500 due to thefailure of the bearings or the sticking of the shaft. Therefore, sinceless torque is transferred to the vacuum enclosure, there is lesspossibility of damage to the apparatus and less risk to the operator.

The difference in the torque transferred is as a consequence of the workdone by the flange 411 sliding against plate 412. The work donegenerates heat. Therefore, not only does the arrangement of clamp 420,flange 411, and plate 412 act as a torque limiter to inhibit excessivetorque being transferred to vacuum enclosure 110, it also enables theflywheel energy stored in rotating target 500 to be relatively slowlydissipated as heat through frictional contact between flange 411 andplate 412. In contrast, since clamp 420 applies clamping force to flange411 via roller bearing 421, there is little energy dissipated in clamp420.

In the embodiment of FIG. 10, the plate 412 is selected to be a materialwhich, at operating temperatures of less than 100° C., will benon-galling when under compressive contact with flange 411. Therefore,the possibility of adhesion over time between flange 411 and plate 412is reduced, and the mechanism can be relied upon to operate under thedesign conditions. Particularly, when vacuum enclosure 110 is stainlesssteel, the plate 412 may be made of brass.

Of course, the arrangement of FIG. 10 is only one embodiment of atorque-limiting and/or kinetic energy dissipating rotary targetassembly. For example, in order to provide the torque-limiting featurealone, a bearing housing could be provided which is mounted to the wallof vacuum enclosure 110 by means of shear pins which are adapted toshear under a predetermined torque transfer to the bearing. Once atorque threshold had been exceeded, and the shearing of the shear pinshad occurred, the bearing would then simply freely rotate relative tothe remainder of the apparatus.

Such arrangements do not, however, control or limit the rate at whichthe kinetic energy in the target 500 is dissipated after operation ofthe torque-limiter, and unacceptable thermal or mechanical stress to thevacuum enclosure 110 may occur. To address such concerns, an additionalor alternative means of dissipating the kinetic energy transferred fromthe rotating target 500 may be desired. For example, the bearing couldbe provided with fins projecting into a surrounding tank of viscousfluid, such as an oil, and within which the bearing with fins couldrotate. Kinetic energy would thus be dissipated through interaction ofthe fins with the oil. Other possible approaches to dissipating thekinetic energy are possible, as one skilled in the art will understand.

However, the arrangement of FIG. 10 provides a particularly effectiveand efficient solution to the problem of excessive torque transfer inrotating target assemblies.

In one particular embodiment of the arrangement of FIG. 10, a 400 mmdiameter target rotating at 1200 rpm, having a main mass of 8 kg, mayhave a kinetic energy of around 130,000 J. Assuming that, on seizure,the bearing housing is accelerated to the speed of the target in tenrevolutions of the target, a torque of around 2,000 Nm could begenerated. However, in the arrangement of FIG. 10, if the adjustingscrews 424 b are adjusted to provide about 80 kg of force between flange411 and plate 412, and assuming the flange has a diameter of about 80mm, and also assuming a coefficient of friction between flange 411 andplate 412 of 0.25, the energy in the target will totally dissipatebetween 20 and 30 seconds, generating a peak thermal power of 10 kW ofheat and transferring a peak torque to vacuum enclosure 110 of onlyabout 8 Nm. However, the arrangement of FIG. 10 is applicable to othertarget speeds, masses, and any maximum torque that may be required, byappropriate adjustment of adjusting screw 424 b. For example, a suitableforce might be 50 kg, in certain circumstances.

Notably, several variants are possible on the arrangement of FIG. 10.For example, in some cases, it may be desired that adjusting screws 424b are not provided, and instead a predetermined and fixed force isapplied, in order to avoid inadvertent or incorrect adjustment of thetorque-limiter. In some embodiments, a clamp force of 50 kg may besufficient, or even less, and the maximum continuous or instantaneoustorque permitted to be transferred may be 10 Nm or less.

In the embodiment of FIG. 10, bearing housing 403 is generallycylindrical, and inserts into a corresponding cylindrical aperture 410in the wall of vacuum enclosure 110; however, this is not essential, andcontact between a non-cylindrical bearing housing and the wall of thevacuum enclosure could be provided only through the clamping of theflange to the plate. Preferably, though, an aperture to accommodate thebearing aperture is formed in the energy-absorbing plate 412, so thatany frictional contact between the outer cylindrical wall of the bearingand the aperture dissipates frictionally-generated energy in acontrolled manner.

The energy-absorbing plate 412 may be provided to the bearing housing,and the flange 411 may be provided to the exterior wall of the vacuumenclosure 110. Either the kinetic energy absorbing plate or the flangemay be intermittent, that is, may be formed with radial gaps, such thatat least a portion of the flange or the energy-absorbing plate might beformed as radially-protruding veins. However, a continuous flange andcontinuous energy-absorbing plate maximises the frictional contactbetween the two components and also provides greater thermal mass intowhich to dissipate the generated heat. The flange itself need not bepresent, and sliding contact could simply be provided between an endface of the bearing housing and a surface of an exterior wall of thevacuum enclosure.

The annular energy-absorbing plate and the flange may be formedintegrally with the bearing housing or the wall of the vacuum enclosure110, or may be provided, as shown in FIG. 10, as a distinct component,for example having a composition different from that of the remainder ofthe bearing housing and/or the vacuum enclosure. Such is advantageous toallow the properties of the energy-absorbing plate to be selected tocontrol the static and sliding friction between flange and plate and tooptimise the kinetic energy dissipation in the plate.

Rotary X-Ray Transmission Target

The arrangement of FIG. 2 employs a rotating transmission target 500 togenerate x-rays from the incident electron beam. Conventionally, rotarytargets for x-ray emission sources are formed as a disc on which a layerof suitable high-atomic-number target material, such as tungsten, isplated. For a transmission target, in which the electron beam is appliedfrom one side and the x-ray emission is taken from the opposite side,the substrate supporting the target should be both thin and lower inatomic number to minimise x-ray absorption, and must have geometry,mechanical properties and physical properties such as thermalconductivity, specific heat capacity and melting point to dissipate theheat generated by the x-ray irradiation. However, these requirements cancome into conflict.

For electron beam energies of around 160 keV, a thin layer of tungsten,for example about 10 μm, may be deposited onto a beryllium, carbon oraluminium substrate. However, as the electron beam energy increases, thepenetration of the electrons into the target increases and a thickerlayer of target material is required. For example, 750 keV electronbeams can penetrate in excess of 200 μm into tungsten. However, it isdifficult to deposit thin layers of such target materials onto thelower-atomic-number substrates needed, due to bonding stresses at theinterface. Further, during sustained operation at elevated temperaturesand under rotation at high speeds, the bonding stresses can increase andcause failure or delamination of the target material. Relatively thicktargets are not an option in transmission mode, as they will tend toabsorb the x-rays generated.

One solution to this problem is to mechanically attach an annulus ofsuitable target material to a hub. This approach is suitable for lowelectron fluxes, but as higher electron fluxes are deposited in thetarget, the target must rotate faster and must have a larger diameter toavoid excessive thermal stress in the target ring. When sucharrangements are subject to the thermal stress of high electron beamflux and fast rotation, the hoop stress due to the centripetal forces,the thermal stress due to the incident electron beam, and the tensilestress between the target annulus and the hub can lead to fracture inthe target material. Where fracture occurs, a gap may form in the targetring, and the electron beam is then able to pass through the low-densityhub and irradiate the x-ray emission window, leading to potential damageto the window.

To solve these problems, the embodiment of FIG. 2 employs a target inwhich a plurality of target plates are anchored on a hub to provide anannular target region about the axis of the hub. By providing aplurality of separate target plates, rather than a continuous ring oftarget material, local stresses introduced in each plate do not transferto other regions of target material, and the plates are locally able tocontract and expand under the thermal stress without the possibility ofthe ring fracturing at a single weak point. Furthermore, the hoop stressinduced in the target region does not lead to failure of the targetplates since the target plates are discontinuous and can individuallydistort to accommodate stresses without affecting neighbouring regionsof target material.

FIGS. 11a, 11b, 12a and 12b depict a rotary x-ray emission targetsuitable for use in the embodiment of FIG. 2.

In FIG. 12a , target plates 560 in the form of annular sectors areanchored to an outer periphery 511 of target hub 500 to form asubstantially annular target region. In the arrangement of FIG. 12a ,target plates 560 are clamped to hub 500 at a relatively radially inwardposition of each plate, and have target portions 565 which projectrelatively radially outward of this position relative to hub 500 intothe target region. However, provided the hub material is sufficientlythin to allow transmission of the x-rays, the plates can be arranged tolie within the outer periphery of the hub, as may be required.

In some embodiments, the target plates can have target plates, in thetarget region, have a thickness less than 200% of the electronpenetration depth in the target material at 750 keV, preferably lessthan 150%, more preferably less than 125%. Selecting such thicknessesallows the x-ray attenuation by the target material to be reduced.

Advantageously, in the arrangement of FIG. 12a , target plates 560 areseparated by gaps 561 which interrupt the target material of the targetregion. In FIG. 12a , gaps 561 are provided extending in a radialdirection between target plates 560, but can be provided at some otherangle to the radial direction, without limitation. The gaps also have noparticular limitation on their size, other than being sufficiently smallsuch that when the target disc is operated at an operational rotationalspeed, the target plates present a substantially continuous targetsurface to the incident electron beam. For example, the interruptions inthe target material can represent no more than 10%, no more than 1%, nomore than 0.1%, or no more than 0.05% of a total circumferential pathwithin the target region. Therefore, with plates of circumferentiallength 50 mm, gaps of circumferential length between 0.1 mm and 0.2 mmbetween neighbouring plates may be appropriate.

Alternatively, the plates can abut or partially overlap, so as to permitthe edge of one plate to slide under an adjacent plate. In such asituation, it may be advantageous to form the plates to have bevelledcircumferential-direction edges to allow the plates to abut with anoverlap.

While such a structure serves to effectively reduce the total stressesinduced in the target material and thus to guard against failure, underparticularly high beam fluxes or energies, the edges of the plates 560themselves may be prone to failure. Particularly, when the electron beamirradiates an edge region of a plate 560, the possibility of thermaldissipation of the heat is greatly reduced as compared with irradiationin the centre of a plate, since the generated heat can only flow in onecircumferential direction, rather than in both directions. Therefore,under particularly intense irradiation, such edge regions may be proneto damage.

To prevent such damage, the arrangement shown in FIGS. 12a and 12b isadopted, wherein shield elements 570 are provided to axially overlie theedge portions of adjacent target plates 560 so as to interrupt theelectron beam when these regions intersect the beam path. Each shieldelement 570 is formed of a material which interrupts the electron beambut which is not as efficient at producing x-rays as the targetmaterial, and which preferentially produces heat. For example, amaterial of lower atomic number may be used as the shield material, witha thickness chosen so as to fully or partially absorb the electron beam.Beryllium or aluminium are, among others, suitable materials, sincetheir low atomic numbers avoid the creation of a competing unwantedsecondary x-ray source in the shield elements 570.

In the arrangement of FIGS. 12a and 12b , shield elements 570 comprisefingers 572 extending above the circumferential-direction edge portionsof shield elements 560. Since each finger 572 is axially displacedrelative to the respective target plates 560, the edges of which itoverlies, finger 572 is relatively defocussed from the focal plane ofthe electron beam at the underlying target plates 560 and thus thethermal power density deposited in finger 572 is lower, and thus moreeasily dissipated, due to the larger electron beam spot size. Inparticular, as shown in FIG. 12b , a spacer 580 is provided betweentarget plate 560 and shield element 570 to provide the requireddisplacement.

For example, using a magnetic lens which focusses a 1 mm diameter beamto a 10 μm diameter spot over a focal length of 30 mm, if the finger isspaced 6 mm from the target plate then the beam diameter at the fingerwill be about 200 μm. In such a situation, the instantaneous power perunit area deposited in the finger will only be around one twentieth thatdeposited in the target, and may be more easily dissipated.

In the arrangement of FIGS. 12a and 12b , both shield elements 570 andplates 560 are clamped to hub 500 by means of clamp screws 590 engagedwith threaded bores 512 formed in the hub circumferential portion 511 ofhub 500, which clamp screws 590 pass through and provide axial clampingforce to target plates 560 and shield elements 570 but which also permitslight expansion and contraction of each of these elements under thethermal and kinetic forces existing during operation. To enable clampscrews 590 to pass through target plates 560, bores 563 are provided inthe target plates, while to enable clamp screws 590 to pass throughshield elements 570, bores 573 are provided in the shield elements.

Advantageously, each shield element 570 has, in addition to theprojecting finger portion 572, a relatively circumferentially broaderand axially deeper mount portion 571 having bores 573, providing asecure anchor point through which shafts 592 of clamp screws 590 canpass and against which caps 591 of clamp screws 590 can apply clampingforce, and providing a thermal mass for absorbing the heat generated inshield element 570 as it passes through the electron beam.

Although the arrangements of FIGS. 12a and 12b effectively preventdamage to the target material as a result of instantaneous thermal andmechanical stresses during operation, it is useful to reliably furtherdissipate the heat generated in the target region away from theperipheral edge of the target. The design of hub shown in FIGS. 11a and11b is able to achieve this.

Hub 500 shown in FIG. 11a has a peripheral edge portion 511 having aflat beam-facing surface for accommodating plates 560 of targetmaterial, and has an intermediate annular portion 513, radially inwardof peripheral portion 511, having an increased thickness andaccommodating cooling passages 515, shown in the cross-section view ofFIG. 11b . The intermediate annular portion 513 allows the absorptionand transfer of heat from the peripheral edge portion 511. Coolingpassages 515 extend in a branched fashion throughout intermediateannular portion 513 and serve to carry a cooling fluid which conductsheat from intermediate annular portion 513, to which heat is conductedfrom the peripheral edge portion 511.

To allow cooling fluid to be conveniently supplied to and withdrawn fromcooling passages 515, a boss portion 520 is provided to the hub 500 toproject axially from within a central recess 514, which recess is formedin a face of the hub 500 radially inward of intermediate annular portion513. In FIG. 11a , the boss 520, like hub 500, is disc-shaped ingeometry. Boss 520 provides supply and return apertures 521 a, 521 b atan outer circumferential surface of the hub and directed towards aninner circumferential surface of the recess 514, in which correspondingapertures 515 a, 515 b are formed. Supply and return pipes 530 a and 530b extend between apertures 521 a, 521 b in the hub and apertures 515 aand 515 b in the wall of the recess.

Apertures 515 a and 515 b in the wall of the recess communicate withflow passage 515, providing respective supply and return ports for fluidflowing in passage 515. Ports 521 a and 521 b respectively providesupply and return ports for fluid flowing from and returning to hub 520.Internal to hub 520 are supply passage 521, communicating with supplyports 521 a, and return passage 522, communicating with return ports 521b. Supply and return passages 521, 522 which terminate inside boss 520at coaxially arranged flow passages arranged to match coaxially-arrangedsupply and return passages 401 c, 401 d in shaft 401. Shaft 401 mountsto hub via shaft boss 401 b, which is clamped to a face of hub 500opposite to the boss 520 by screws which penetrate the boss 520 and thehub 500 and which terminate in threaded bores in shaft boss 401 b. Ofcourse, other methods of mounting hub 500 on shaft 401 b are possible,such as splines and screw threads, as well as other arrangements ofsupply and return passages.

Coolant supplied through central supply passage 401 c in shaft 401passes into supply channel 521 in boss 520 and, via apertures 521 a,pipes 530 a, and apertures 515 a in order, then passes into coolant flowpath 515. Coolant returned from flow path 515 passes through apertures515 b, pipes 530 b, and apertures 521 b in order, into coolant returnpassage 522 in boss 520, and then returns along outer coaxial flow path401 d in shaft 401.

Pipes 530 are maintained in position by seal elements 521 a and 521 b,which are fixed, in the present embodiment by screws, to the innercircumferential surface of recess 514. The pipes may be rigid orflexible, and may extend along radii of hub 500 or along other pathsbetween the boss 520 and the flow path 515

Accordingly, the arrangement of FIGS. 11a and 11b enable the peripheralportion of a target hub to be efficiently cooled by a coolant fluidsupplied to and retrieved from the shaft about which the hub rotates.

In an alternative configuration, the boss 520 could be fully or partlyrecessed into the surface of hub 500. In some configurations, thesurface of hub 500 at which boss 520 is provided is flat as aconsequence of the recessing of the boss. In such configuration, pipes530 may be omitted, and apertures 521 a and 515 a, as well as apertures515 b and 521 b, could be provided to seal against one another,optionally with respective seal members. Alternatively, the apertures521 a and 521 b or the apertures 515 a and 515 b could be located in anaxial surface of the hub 500 or boss 510 and connected by pipes havingangular or curved paths. Such a configuration could be provided with afully, partly or unrecessed boss, and with such a configuration, thecentral recess 514 could be omitted or could be provided as the recessinto which a fully or partly recessed boss is fitted. All suchvariations are within the scope of the present disclosure.

Of course, the various elements of the apparatus of FIG. 2 may beprovided separately or together, and such variations would be understoodby one skilled in the art taking into account the technical effectsprovided by each of the elements disclosed herein. According toavailable materials and techniques, and according to the engineering andother requirements of any realised device, elements may be replaced,substituted, removed or modified without departing from the disclosure,spirit and scope of the invention as described herein.

The invention claimed is:
 1. An electron beam apparatus, comprising: avacuum enclosure; and an electron beam generator, mounted in the vacuumenclosure, the electron beam generator comprising a high-voltageelectrode and an electron emission source mounted at the high-voltageelectrode to produce an electron beam, wherein: the electron beamgenerator further comprises a control module mounted within the electronbeam generator; the electron beam apparatus further comprises a remotemodule mounted relative to a wall of the vacuum enclosure; the controlmodule comprises one of a photodetector and a photoemitter; the remotemodule comprises the other of the photodetector and the photoemitter;the photodetector is positioned to receive light emitted by thephotoemitter; the electron beam apparatus further comprises atransparent conductive shield arranged in an optical path between thephotodetector and the photoemitter to cover one of the photodetector andthe photoemitter.
 2. The electron beam apparatus according to claim 1,wherein the transparent conductive shield is arranged at andelectrically connected to the high-voltage electrode, and the controlmodule is mounted within the high-voltage electrode.
 3. The electronbeam apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the transparent conductiveshield is arranged at and electrically connected to the wall of thevacuum enclosure.
 4. The electron beam apparatus according to claim 1,wherein a conductive mirror is positioned in an optical path between thetransparent conductive shield and the other of the photodetector and thephotoemitter that is not covered by the transparent conductive shield.5. The electron beam apparatus according to claim 4, wherein theconductive mirror is positioned at or within and electrically connectedto the high voltage electrode.
 6. The electron beam apparatus accordingto claim 4, wherein the conductive mirror is positioned at or outsideand electrically connected to the wall of the vacuum enclosure.
 7. Theelectron beam apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the transparentconductive shield forms part of a vacuum barrier at either the wall ofthe vacuum enclosure or a wall of the high-voltage electrode.
 8. Theelectron beam apparatus according to claim 1, wherein a flow path isprovided from one side of the transparent conductive shield to anotherside of the transparent conductive shield to equalise pressure betweenthe one side and the other side.
 9. The electron beam apparatusaccording to claim 1, wherein the transparent conductive shieldcomprises a transparent substrate having a transparent conductive layerprovided on the transparent substrate.
 10. The electron beam apparatusaccording to claim 9, wherein the transparent conductive layer is apatterned conductive layer.
 11. The electron beam apparatus according toclaim 9, wherein the transparent conductive layer is a conductive film.12. The electron beam apparatus according to claim 10, wherein thetransparent conductive layer comprises indium tin oxide.
 13. Theelectron beam apparatus according to claim 9, wherein the transparentsubstrate is a glass.
 14. The electron beam apparatus according to claim9, wherein the remote module is removably mounted to the wall of thevacuum enclosure.
 15. An x-ray gun comprising the electron beamapparatus according to claim 1 and a target assembly arranged such thatthe electron beam from the electron beam generator irradiates an x-rayemission target portion of the target assembly.